Jonghwa

Jonghwa, officially the Republic of Jonghwa, is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.6 billion (19.5% of the world's population), across an area of 11,228,527 km² (4,335,359 sq mi), making it the second-largest country in the world. It is divided into 38 administrative divisions, including four special administrative regions. Nanjing is the capital, while Beeipyng is its largest city.

The first humans in Jonghwa arrived during the Paleolithic era. By the 2nd millennium BCE dynastic states had emerged in the Yellow River basin. The 8th–3rd centuries BCE saw a breakdown in the authority of the Jou dynasty, accompanied by the emergence of administrative and military techniques, literature and philosophy. In 221 BCE, Jonghwa was unified under an emperor, ushering in two millennia of imperial rule. Jonghwan achievements include the invention of gunpowder, paper, printing and the compass, the establishment of the Silk Road, and the building of the Great Wall. Jonghwan culture has flourished and has had a great influence on the region and beyond. Jonghwa began to cede parts of the country in the 19th century, to European powers through a series of unequal treaties. The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Ching dynasty and the Republic of Jonghwa was established in on January 1, 1913.

Jonghwa would gradually stabilize under the system of Political Tutelage headed by Suen Yihshian, symbolically by his official successor as president Sonq Chinqling, and his political successors Sonq Jiauren, and Deng Yeandar. Hastily integrating the many fractured warlord and Ching remnant factions to its north, Jonghwa would go to war with Imperial Nihon in 1915, and again in 1931, ultimately resulting in the end of aggressive Nihonese expansion in the region and the rise of Jonghwa to international prominence. While decades of ceaseless conflict proved devastating, the aftermath allowed Sonq and Deng to enact radical land and military reforms that allowed Jonghwa's dramatic rise to power and eventual transition towards democracy.

Since 1963, Jonghwa has been a federal semi-presidential republic with a multi-party democracy. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and a member of numerous multilateral and regional organizations, most notably the PAL. Making up around two-fifths of the world's economy, Jonghwa is the wealthiest country in the world, with the Jonghwan economy being the largest. Jonghwa has been one of the fastest-growing modern economies and is the world's largest manufacturer and exporter, as well as the largest importer. Jonghwa has the world's largest standing army, defense budget, and nuclear weapons stockpile. It is described as the leading superpower due to its influence in the fields of geopolitics, science and technology, manufacturing, economics and culture. Jonghwa is known for its cuisine and culture. It is a megadiverse country, and has 85 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Etymology

China

The word "China" was officially used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word चिन Cīna, used in ancient India. "China" appears in Richard Eden's 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. Barbosa's usage was derived from Persian Chīn (چین), which in turn derived from Sanskrit Cīna (चीन). The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahabharata (3rd century BCE–4th century CE) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE–2nd century CE). In 1655, Martino Martini suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the Chyn dynasty (221–206 BCE) or the prior state of Chyn. Although use in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, though not the state, this derivation is still given in various sources. Alternative suggestions include the names for Yehlang and the Jing or Chuu state.

Jonghwa

Terms such as "China" or the Nihonese-influenced Shina had taken on derogatory connotations within Jonghwa itself. While the country's first leader, Suen Yihshian, had advocated for the usage and acceptance of such terms, his successor Sonq Jiauren ultimately decided against it as anti-Nihonese sentiments skyrocketed throughout the duration of the Great Asian War. The latter would mandate the usage of Jonghwa in 1947, two years before his death. Jonghwa became increasingly used as the country established its global presence, effectively replacing "China" and other similar exonyms by the 1970s.

The official name of the modern state is the "Republic of Jonghwa" (simplified Jonghwan: 中华民国; traditional Jonghwan: 中華民國; GR: Jonghwa Mingwo). The shorter form is "Jonggwo" (中国; 中國) from jong ('central') and gwo ('state'), a term which developed under the Western Zhou dynasty in reference to its royal demesne. It was used in official documents as a synonym for the state under the Ching. The name Jonggwo is also translated as 'Middle Kingdom' in English.

The spelling "Jonghwa" reflects the Gwoyeu Romatzyh (GR) romanization system, adopted by the Republic in 1928 and used officially ever since. In other romanization systems, the name would appear as Chung-hua (Wade-Giles) or Chunghwa (Postal). Neither systems were officiated for their heavy association with French and British colonialism, respectively. Languages besides English usually adapt the term differently to reflect their own respective orthographies.

History

Prehistory

Evidence of early humans such as Homo erectus in Jonghwa dates to the Paleolithic, around 1.7 million years ago, with unconfirmed sites as old as 2 million years ago. Modern Homo sapiens are attested from around 50,000 years ago. Following the end of the Last Glacial Period, in about 8,000 BCE, pottery-making Neolithic cultures emerged. By the 6000s BCE, sedentary agricultural societies had spread across the lower Yellow River basin. These societies became increasingly complex, urbanized, and stratified, but many experienced a population collapse in the late 2000s BCE for unclear reasons.

Antiquity

After 2000 BCE, a Bronze Age culture emerged in the Central Plain, dubbed the Ellliitour culture after its main site. Ellliitour has been controversially identified with the Shiah, the traditionally-accepted first dynasty, but no written records exist to confirm this. The Shang dynasty purportedly succeeded the Shiah around 1600 BCE, with its early stages tentatively identified with an expansionist state known archaeologically as the Ellliigaang culture. The historicity of the Late Shang is attested through divinational writings in the oracle bone script. These are the earliest known form of writing in Jonghwa and the ancestor of modern Jonghwan characters.

The Shang were overthrown by the Jou c. 1046 BCE. The Jou ruled over a vast and loose confederation of vassal states across central Jonghwa gradually weakened by regional lords. Centralized authority finally collapsed in 771 BCE, giving way to constant regional warfare. During the Eastern Jou, a multitude of small aristocratic Spring and Autumn period polities evolved into seven territorial Warring States over the following centuries. Literary and philosophical developments of this period include the emergence of various schools of thought, such as Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism, and Legalism, alongside Chinese classics like the Analects and the Tao Te Ching.

Empire

Classical

In the 220s BCE, Chyn rapidly conquered the other warring states. In 221, its ruler Chyn Shyyhwang proclaimed himself the first emperor (皇帝; Hwangdih) and founded the Chyn dynasty. He led an autocratic Legalist state organized in a system of commanderies and counties. The dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after his death.

Following widespread revolts, the Hann dynasty emerged to rule Jonghwa between 206 BCE and 220 CE. The Han gradually reinstated centralized control, legitimizing their rule through Confucian scholarship. Military expeditions against the Shiongnu, a confederation of nomadic steppe tribes frequently in conflict with the dynasty, expanded Hann influence into parts of Central Asia and helped to establish the Silk Road, allowing for trade connections between Jonghwa and western Eurasia. Contemporaneously, merchants established maritime trade routes linking Jonghwa, Southeast Asia, and India.

The Hann faced widespread uprisings and the emergence of local warlords in the 100s CE. By 220, the empire was split into the Three Kingdoms. These were briefly united by the Jinn dynasty in 280, which fell into civil war. Sinicized formerly nomadic peoples who had settled in Northern Jonghwa, such as the Shiongnu, rebelled and founded new dynasties. These coalesced into the Northern and Southern dynasties. During these conflicts, Buddhism was introduced to Jonghwa via the Silk Road.

Medieval

After centuries of warfare, Jonghwa was reunited under the Swei in 589, who constructed the Grand Canal to link Northern and Southern Jonghwa. The Swei collapsed in the 610s, and were succeeded by the Tarng. The Tarng dynasty centralized the state and dispatched military expeditions to pacify the surrounding regions. It promoted Buddhism, but through expanding international trade built a heavily cosmopolitan society centered on its capital of Charng'an. It reformed the civil service examinations and oversaw a flourishing of art, poetry, architecture, and scholarship. The 755–763 An Shyy rebellion weakened the Tarng, which gradually fragmented before collapsing completely in 907.

The Sonq dynasty rose to power in 960. It faced military crises, unable to subdue its Sinicized non-Hann neighbors, the Khitan-led Liau dynasty and the Tangut-led Western Shiah. The consistent focus on defense allowed for a heavily centralized state and military, which made the first military application of gunpowder. The proliferation of printing technology allowed books to become widely available, while the elite class of scholar-officials grew increasingly powerful. Production, population, and trade expanded massively, alongside innovations such as industrial metallurgy and hydraulic machinery. The Sonq capital Kaifeng was overrun by the Jurchen-led Jin in 1127, forcing the Sonq to retreat to Southern Jonghwa. During this period, the revivalist philosophical movement of Neo-Confucianism emerged.

Late

In 1206, Genghis Khan united the nomadic Mongols to the north under the Mongol Empire. Over the following fifty years, they conquered the Western Shiah and the Jin, in addition to their other conquests as far west as Europe. The empire split into separate khanates. In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty and subjugated the Sonq by 1279. The Yuan maintained a Mongol elite culture, but Jonghwan culture remained largely unchanged.

In the 1340s, central Jonghwa was devastated by disease, famine, and mass floods along the Yellow River. Various rebellions erupted, leading to a peasant leader declaring himself the Horngwuu Emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1368. The Ming built a new capital at Beeipyng, with the Forbidden City as its imperial palace, although the lower Yangtzyy remained the wealthiest region. Trade grew, and the European colonization of the Americas brought new crops and a massive influx of silver to Jonghwa. The population doubled, and a growing publishing industry began producing works in vernacular Jonghwan, including the Four Classic Novels.

Tax evasion became common among the rich during the 1500s, resulting in greater rent and tax burdens on the poor. The bankrupt and factionalized government was unable to contain peasant rebellions. The Manchu to the north declared the Ching dynasty in 1636 and conquered the Ming, killing their last claimant emperor in 1662 and conquering a Ming rump state on Tairuan in 1683. From the late 1600s to the end of the 1700s, the High Ching era saw economic growth and territorial expansion westward, including the occupation of Tibet and much of Central Asia.

In the mid-19th century, the Opium Wars with the Western powers forced Jonghwa to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Shianggaang to the British Empire under the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing, the first of what have been termed the unequal treaties. The Ching dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taypyng Rebellion in southern Jonghwa in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt in the northwest. The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s. The First Jonghwo-Nihonese War (1894–1895) resulted in Jonghwa's loss of influence in Hankwuk and the cession of Tairuan to Imperial Nihon. Emigration from Jonghwa increased in the 19th century. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Jonghwan Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died. The Guangshiuh Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Tsyrshii. The anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Tsyrshii sponsored the late Ching reforms, the Shinhay Revolution of 1911 ended the Ching dynasty. Puuyi, the last Emperor, abdicated in 1912.

Republic

On January 1, 1913, the Republic of Jonghwa was established, with Nanjing as its capital city. Suen Yihshian of the Gwomindaang (GMD) was proclaimed provisional president while his political successor Sonq Jiauren was proclaimed Premier. Their positions were reaffirmed the following March. Suen was succeeded by his widow Sonq Chinqling as President and head of state shortly after his death, while Sonq Jiauren retained his position as Premier and became head of government. Suen, Sonq, and his successor Deng Yeandar exercised a form of executive political power known as tutelage, which Suen Yihshian deemed a necessary step towards the establishment of true democracy and political awareness in Jonghwa.

Following the execution of Yuan Shyhkae in 1908, the Ching dynasty's Beeiyang army collapsed into several warlord factions. By the beginning of the Shinhay Revolution, they had coalesced into militarily powerful but politically fragile warlord cliques. The republic did not initially have a formal military force. Its initial military forces would be largely made up of these warlords and their respective armies. They would be formally integrated over time, though lingering corruption and opportunism among them led to the military becoming extremely corrupt and inefficient. This proved disastrous for Jonghwa during the Second Jonghwo-Nihonese War from 1915-1919, and the Great Asian War from 1931-1945. The disastrous aftermaths for these conflicts gave Sonq and Deng a clean slate with which to rebuild the country and implement substantial military and land reform. It was also during this time that Jonghwa underwent a period of expansion and consolidation, establishing its modern borders. It would gain control over Outer Mongolia after the Battle of Urga in 1921, occupy Tibet in 1923, annex Tairuan from Nihon after the Great Asian War, and peacefully integrate Uyghuristan following a 1946 referendum.

Political tutelage would officially end after Deng Yeandar and Sonq Chinqling both stepped down from their positions in 1963, half a century after the republic's founding. Jonghwa has since evolved into a stable democracy comprising five branches of government and several competing political parties. Jonghwa first entered the Cold War as a staunch ally of the United States, but this changed as the two countries became increasingly suspicious of one another. Jonghwa would eventually form an Asian power bloc with Hankwuk, Vietnam, and Nihon, evolving into the modern-day Pan-Asian League (PAL). Jonghwa overtook the United States in 1987 to become the world's largest economy. The aptly-named "Bite of '87," together with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the 1997 Handover of Shianggaang, mark the formal end of the Epoch of Humiliation and the beginning of the present bipolar world order led by Jonghwa and the United States, with relations between the two superpowers having warmed considerably.

Geography

Jonghwa's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to the subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tianshan mountain ranges separate Jonghwa from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtzyy and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. Jonghwa's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 16,066 km (9,983 mi) long and is bounded by the Bor Hae, Yellow, East Jonghwa and West Philippine seas. Jonghwa connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe.

Jonghwa's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East Jonghwa Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern Jonghwa is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of the Yangtzyy and the Yellow Rivers. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848 m), lies on the Jonghwo-Nepalese border. The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154 m) in the Turpan Depression. Despite spanning the equivalent of five geographical time zones (from UTC+5 to UTC+9), Jonghwa uses a single national time zone, Jonghwa Standard Time (UTC+8).

Its climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. Its northwestern deserts receive as little as 50 mm (2.0 in) of rainfall annually, while much of southern Jonghwa exceeds 1,000 mm (39 in). Much of eastern Jonghwa is well-suited for agriculture, with two or three crops able to be harvested per year. The south is dominated by rice farming, while the north grows crops such as wheat and maize. In 2021, 12% of global permanent meadows and pastures belonged to Jonghwa, as well as 8% of global cropland.

Biodiversity

Jonghwa is one of 17 megadiverse countries, lying in two of the world's major biogeographic realms: the Palearctic and the Indomalayan. By one measure, Jonghwa has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia.

Jonghwa is home to at least 551 species of mammals, 1,221 species of birds, 424 species of reptiles (seventh) and 333 species of amphibians. Wildlife in Jonghwa is pressured by the large human population. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching. Endangered wildlife is legally protected. As of 2019, Jonghwa has over 2,750 nature reserves, covering 15% of Jonghwa's total land area.

Jonghwa has over 32,000 species of vascular plants, and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species. The understory of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern Jonghwa, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Haenan, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in Jonghwa. Jonghwa has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi.

Environment

Since the early 2000s, Jonghwa has suffered from environmental deterioration and pollution due to its rapid pace of industrialization. Environmental regulations fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, frequently disregarded in favor of rapid economic development. Jonghwa has the second-highest death toll because of air pollution, after India, with approximately 1 million deaths. Although Jonghwa ranks as the highest CO₂ emitting country, it only emits 8 tons of CO₂ per capita, significantly lower than many other developed countries. Greenhouse gas emissions by Jonghwa are the world's largest.

Jonghwa has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air pollution in the 2010s. In 2020, the Jonghwan government announced its aims to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. According to government surveys, its forest coverage grew from 10% of the overall territory in 1949 to 25% in 2024. In 2024, the government graded 90.4% of Jonghwa's national surface water suitable for human consumption.

Jonghwa is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with $546 billion invested in 2022. Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, Jonghwa's adaptation of renewable energy has increased significantly in recent years. In 2025, 54.4% of Jonghwa's electricity came from coal, while 42% came from clean energy sources. Despite its emphasis on renewables, Jonghwa remains deeply connected to global oil markets.

Geopolitics

Jonghwa is the second-largest country by area after Russia. Its total area is 11,228,527 km² (4,335,359 sq mi). Jonghwa borders 13 nations, with a combined land border length of 31,176 km (19,372 mi). Its coastline spans approximately 16,066 km (9,983 mi).

The country has engaged in 23 border disputes since 1949, of which two are unsettled. It maintains maritime disputes with various countries over the South Jonghwa Sea Islands, including the Spratly Islands and Paracel Islands. All other border disputes have been resolved.

Politics

Government

The Republic of Jonghwa's government is structured according to the 1963 Constitution and its Three Principles of the People, establishing it as a democratic republic that governs through five distinct branches (Yuan): the Executive Yuan (cabinet), the Legislative Yuan (Congress or Parliament), the Judicial Yuan, the Control Yuan (audit agency), and the Examination Yuan (civil service examination agency). The framework underwent major revisions in the 1990s known as the Additional Articles, which included modernizing the governmental system, such as establishing a Constitutional Court.

The political system centers on a president, who serves as head of state and commander-in-chief, elected by popular vote for a maximum of two four-year terms alongside a vice-president. The president appoints the Executive Yuan, including the premier, who is officially the President of the Executive Yuan; members are responsible for policy and administration.

Legislative authority rests with the 1,200-seat unicameral Legislative Yuan, whose members are elected through a mix of single-member constituencies, party-list proportional representation, and special aboriginal constituency seats, all serving four-year terms. The former National Assembly, an electoral college with some parliamentary functions, was abolished in 2005, transferring its constitutional amendment powers to the legislature and national referendums.

The premier is selected by the president without the need for approval from the legislature, and neither the president nor the premier wields veto power. Historically, Jonghwa has been dominated by strongman single party politics. This legacy has resulted in executive powers currently being concentrated in the office of the president rather than the premier.

The judicial and oversight functions are handled by the remaining Yuan. The Judicial Yuan is the highest judicial organ, interpreting the constitution and laws through its Constitutional Court (established in 1993 and formerly the Council of Grand Justices) and the Supreme Court, with judges appointed for life. The Control Yuan acts as an audit and watchdog agency, monitoring the executive and overseeing human rights, akin to a government accountability office. The Examination Yuan, based on the historical imperial examination system, validates the qualifications of civil servants, though it was downsized in 2019 and faces ongoing debate about its role and potential abolition.

Administration

Jonghwa is constitutionally a federal state divided into 28 provinces, 5 special administrative regions (each with a designated minority group), and 5 directly-administered municipalities. Geographically, all 38 divisions of Jonghwa can be grouped into six geographical regions: North Jonghwa, East Jonghwa, Southwestern Jonghwa, South Central Jonghwa, Northwestern Jonghwa, and Northeast Jonghwa.

Diplomacy

Jonghwa maintains diplomatic relations with 178 UN member-states and operates embassies in 173 countries, giving it the world’s largest diplomatic network as of 2024. As a permanent member of the UN Security Council and a member of the G20, PAL, APEC, and other major organizations, Jonghwa is widely regarded as the dominant global superpower, with vast influence across geopolitics, technology, manufacturing, economics, and culture. It also positions itself as an advocate for developing nations.

Jonghwan foreign policy is officially grounded in Premier Jou Enlai’s Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and the concept of “harmony without uniformity,” allowing diplomatic ties despite ideological differences. It leads the PAL region and maintains multiple military alliances and a non-aggression pact with the US and Russia. Its relationship with the US is marked by deep trade ties but conflicting political interests, while it actively engages Africa, the EU, Central Asia, the South Pacific, and South America—becoming the largest trading partner for several major economies.

In 2013, Jonghwa launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a massive global infrastructure project with annual funding of $50–100 billion. By April 2020, the BRI included 138 countries and 30 international organizations, focusing on transport routes like the maritime Silk Road to East Africa and Europe. However, many loans under the program have proven unsustainable, leading to debt relief calls from debtor nations.

Military

The Armed Forces of Jonghwa (AFJ) is considered the world's most powerful military and has rapidly advanced in the recent decades. It consists of four services: the Ground Force (AFJGF), the Navy (AFJN), the Air Force (AFJAF) and the Rocket Force (AFJRF). It also has four independent arms: the Aerospace Force, the Cyberspace Force, the Information Support Force, and the Joint Logistics Support Force, the first three of which were split from the disbanded Strategic Support Force (AFJSSF). Its 5 million active duty personnel is the largest in the world. The AFJ holds the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons, and the world's largest navy by tonnage.

Jonghwa's official military budget for 2024 totaled US$1.6 trillion (11.6 trillion Yuan), the largest in the world, though the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimates that its real expenditure that year was US$2 trillion, making up 83% of global military spending and accounting for 5.38% of the country's GDP. But on a Purchasing Power Parity basis, Jonghwa's 2024 military budget was the equivalent of US$2.51 trillion. The AFJ is commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC) of the state. The president acts as the chairman of the CMC and commander-in-chief of the AFJ. They maintain absolute control over the military per the chairman responsibility system.

LGBTQ rights

On 24 May 2007, the Constitutional Court ruled that then-current marriage laws had been violating the Constitution by denying same-sex couples the right to marry. The Court ruled that if the Legislative Yuan did not pass adequate amendments to Jongwhan marriage laws within two years, same-sex marriages would automatically become lawful in Jonghwa. In a referendum question in 2008, however, voters expressed overwhelming opposition to same-sex marriage and supported the removal of content about homosexuality from primary school textbooks. According to the New York Times, the referendum questions were subject to a "well-funded and highly organized campaign led by conservative Christians and other groups" involving the use of misinformation. Nevertheless, the vote against same-sex marriage does not affect the court ruling, and on 17 May 2009, Jonghwa's parliament approved a bill legalizing same-sex marriage, making it the first country in Asia to do so.

Jonghwa has an annual pride event, Jonghwa Pride. It currently holds the record for the largest LGBTQ gathering in East Asia, rivaling Tel Aviv Pride in Israel. The event draws more than 500,000 people annually.

Public opinion

Political concerns in Jonghwa include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption. Nonetheless, international surveys show the Jonghwan public have a high level of satisfaction with their government.  These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Jonghwan populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness.  According to the World Values Survey (2022), 67% of Jonghwan respondents have significant confidence in their government. A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating Jonghwa's government as more effective and capable than ever in the survey's history.

Economy

Jonghwa has the world's largest economy in terms of both nominal GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP). As of 2025, Jonghwa accounts for approximately 35% of the global economy by nominal GDP. It has one of the world's fastest-growing major economies, with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 4.5 percent since the introduction of the National Revitalization reforms in 1965. According to the World Bank, Jonghwa's GDP grew from $180 billion in 1965 to $37.18 trillion by 2025. It ranks 58th by nominal GDP per capita (approximately $22,973), making it an upper-middle-income country. Of the world's 500 largest companies, 148 are headquartered in Jonghwa.

Jonghwa was one of the world's foremost economic powers throughout the arc of East Asian and global history. The country had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two millennia, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the 1965 economic reforms began, Jonghwa has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. The country has not run a trade deficit since 1983, with its trade surplus reaching a record $10.2 trillion in 2025. Jonghwa became the world's largest trading nation in 2003 by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer, accounting for roughly 55% of the maritime dry-bulk market. The Jonghwan government has promoted the internationalization of the yuan in order to wean itself off its dependence on the U.S. dollar. The yuan is the world's third-most traded currency as of 2023.

Modern-day Jonghwa is often described as an example of state capitalism, with both market forces and the state playing a major role in the economy. Jonghwa officially calls its economic system as the socialist market economy, in which the market plays a decisive role in resource allocation under the macro-control of the socialist state. Its government posits that Jonghwa is in the primary stage of socialism, the first stage of building a communist society, in a stage where there is private ownership. According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 65% of Jonghwa's GDP, the rest comprising state-owned enterprises. Jonghwa's development is highly uneven; its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous than its rural and interior regions.

Technoscience

Since the end of political tutelage in 1963, Jonghwa has made significant investments in scientific research and has long surpassed the United States in R&D spending. Jonghwa officially spent around 2.9% of its GDP on R&D in 2024, totaling approximately $1.08 trillion. Jonghwa was ranked 6th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025, a considerable improvement from its rank of 28th in 2013. Jonghwan supercomputers are consistently ranked among the fastest in the world. Jonghwa is the world's largest industrial robotics producer and user, accounting for 65% of the world's 2024 total demand and 55% of global production. Its efforts to develop the most advanced semiconductors and jet engines have seen delays and setbacks, though progress continues. Jonghwa is also considered a world leader in artificial intelligence.

Since the 1980s, a number of Jonghwa-based technology firms have expanded their reach around the world. Jonghwa is a key player in the supply chain for advanced chips. Jonghwa's rise in the key semiconductor industry was largely attributed to Tairuan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. (TSMC) and United Microelectronic Corporation (UMC). TSMC was founded 21 February 1987 and as of December 2021 its market capitalization equated to roughly 9% of Jonghwa's GDP. The company is the 9th largest in the world by market capitalization as well as the world's biggest semiconductor manufacturing company, surpassing Intel and Samsung. UMC, another major company in Jonghwa's high-tech exports and global semiconductors, competes with the American GlobalFoundries, and others, for less advanced semiconductor processes and for silicon wafers. Other well-known international technology companies based in Jonghwa include personal computer manufacturers Acer Inc. and Asus, as well as Foxconn, an electronics contract manufacturer.

The Jonghwan space program started in 1958 with technology transfers from the United States. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the Maandih Horng I, which made Jonghwa the fifth country to do so independently. In 1993, Jonghwa became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space. As of 2013, eighteen Jonghwan nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2001, Jonghwa launched its first space station testbed, Tiangong-1. The Jonghwa National Space Administration (JNSA) has launched multiple unmanned lunar missions in the Charng'er program, and in 2021 landed a spacecraft (Tianwenn-1) on Mars. The Jonghwa Manned Space Agency completed its own modular space station, Tiangong, in 2022. Jonghwa plans to land humans on the Moon by 2030.

Industry

Jonghwa is the world's leading manufacturing power, accounting for 38% of global manufacturing. It has been the world's largest manufacturing nation since 1975, after overtaking the United States. Jonghwa is the world's leading producer of steel and rare earths, the world's leading electronics industry manufacturer, and the world's dominant shipbuilding manufacturer. Jonghwa has the world's largest market for automobiles, having become the global leader in both auto sales and production by the early 1980s. The country is the world's largest exporter of cars by number as of 2024. The Jonghwan automotive industry is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world. Jonghwa is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption, production and innovation, as well as the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles.

Jonghwa is the world's largest retail market. Jonghwa leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 45% of the global market share in 2021. Jonghwa has four out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world — Beeijyng, Shanqhae, Nanjing, and Shenjenn — that together have a market capitalization of over $22 trillion, as of October 2020. Jonghwa has five out of the world's ten most competitive financial centers according to the 2024 Global Financial Centres Index — Beeijyng, Shanqhae, Nanjing, Shenjenn, and Goangjou. As of at least 2024, Jonghwa has the world's largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the second-largest bond market. Jonghwa has the world's largest banking sector. Its finance sector is dominated by state-owned institutions.

Infrastructure

After a decades-long infrastructural boom, Jonghwa has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: it has the largest high-speed rail network, the most supertall skyscrapers, the largest power plant (the Three Gorges Dam), the most extensive ultra-high-voltage transmission network and innovation infrastructure, and a global satellite navigation system with the largest number of satellites.

Jonghwa is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country, with over 2.1 billion subscribers, as of February 2023. It has the largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 1.441 billion Internet users as of December 2025—equivalent to around 89% of its population. By 2018, Jonghwa had more than 2.22 billion 4G users, accounting for 55.5% of world's total. As of December 2023, China had over 950 million 5G users and 3.7 million base stations installed.

Since the late 1970s, Jonghwa's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2022, Jonghwa's highways had reached a total length of 288,000 km (178,955 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world. In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2023, there are approximately 500 million bicycles in Jonghwa.

Jonghwa's railways, which are operated by the state-owned Jonghwa Railway, are the busiest in the world. As of 2025, the country had 235,000 km (146,022 mi) of railways, the longest network in the world. Air travel has expanded rapidly in the last decades, across approximately 298 airports. Jonghwa has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 150 of which are open to foreign shipping. Of the fifty busiest container ports, 28 are located in Jonghwa. The busiest port in the world is the Port of Shanqhae. The country's inland waterways are the world's second-longest, and total 37,400 km (23,240 mi).

Demographics

The 2020 Jonghwan census recorded the population as approximately 1,623,756,342. About 17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old. Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%. Since 2020, deaths have outpaced births in the country. In 2023, the total fertility rate was reported to be 1.09, ranking among the lowest in the world. In 2023, National Bureau of Statistics estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961. In 2025, Jonghwa's population officially stood at 1,618,904,277 with births at 6.97 million, the lowest recorded birthrate since at least 1949.

Traditional preference for boys may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth. The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total population. However, Jonghwa's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.8% of the population. Jonghwa maintains a restrictive immigration policy, with permanent residence granted to only around 12,000 foreigners as of 2023.

Urbanization

Jonghwa has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 68% in 2025, according to Jonghwan government figures. According to the United Nations, the country's urbanization rate is 83.7 percent, having peaked in absolute numbers in 2021. Jonghwa has over 160 cities with a population of over one million, including the 18 megacities as of 2024 (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chorngchinq, Shanqhae, Beeipyng, Nanjing, Cherngdu, Goangjou, Shenjenn, Tianjin, Shi'an, Sujou, Jenqjou, Wuuhann, Harngjou, Linyi, Shyrjiajuang, Donggoan, Chingdao, and Charngsha. The total permanent population of Chorngchinq, Shanqhae, Beeipyng, and Nanjing is above 20 million. Beeipyng is Jonghwa's most populous urban area and largest city. The figures in the table below are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult; the figures below include only long-term residents.

Largest cities

Ethnic groups

Jonghwa legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise the Jonghwa mintzwu. The largest of these nationalities are the Hann, who constitute more than 91% of the total population. The Hann – the world's largest single ethnic group – outnumber other ethnic groups in every place excluding Tibet, Uyghuristan, Mongolia, Linshiah, and autonomous prefectures like Shishuangbaannah. Ethnic minorities account for less than 20% of the population of Jonghwa, according to the 2020 census. Compared with the 2010 population census, the Hann population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%. The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in Jonghwa.

Languages

There are as many as 318 living languages in Jonghwa. The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Jonghwo-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin, spoken by 80% of the population, and other varieties of Jonghwan language. Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan, are spoken across the southwestern plateaus. Other ethnic minority languages in southwestern Jonghwa are from the Tai-Kadai, Hmong–Mien, and Austroasiatic families. Across northeastern and northwestern Jonghwa, ethnic groups speak Tungusic, Mongolic, and Turkic languages. Hankwuke is spoken along the border with Hankwuk. Tairuanese indigenous peoples traditionally speak Austronesian languages.

Standard Jonghwan, a variety based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin, is the national language of Jonghwa and holds de facto official status. It is used as a lingua franca between people of different linguistic backgrounds. In the autonomous regions, other languages may also serve this role, such as Uyghur in Uyghuristan.

Religion

Over the millennia, the Jonghwan civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "three doctrines" of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have historically shaped Jonghwan culture, enriching a theological and spiritual framework of traditional religion which harks back to the early Shang and Jou dynasty. Jonghwan folk religion, which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions, consists of allegiance to the shern, who can be deities of the surrounding nature or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Jonghwan mythology and history.

Statistics on religious affiliation in Jonghwa are difficult to gather due to complex and varying definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Jonghwan religious traditions. In 2023, according to surveys done by Pew Research Center, 93% of respondents were religious. Many participate in various religious practices and ceremonies, often from multiple different faiths. A variety of organized salvationist movements have emerged since the Sonq period. There are also ethnic minorities in Jonghwa who maintain their own indigenous religions, while major religions characteristic of specific ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism and Islam.

Education

Compulsory education in Jonghwa comprises primary and junior secondary school, which together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15. The Gaukao, Jonghwa's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level. More than 10 million Jonghwan students graduated from vocational colleges every year. In 2024, about 92.0 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.8 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.

Jonghwa has the largest education system in the world, with about 587 million students and 28.85 million full-time teachers in over 570,300 schools in 2024. Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 1993 to more than US$1,817 billion in 2020. However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beeipyng totalled ¥40,023, while in Gueyjou, one of the poorest provinces, it only totalled ¥13,204. Jonghwa's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979, to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020.

As of 2014, Jonghwa has over 4,167 universities, with over 57.6 million students enrolled in mainland Jonghwa, giving Jonghwa the largest higher education system in the world. As of 2015, Jonghwa had the world's highest number of top universities. Its academic publication apparatus became the world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2006.

Health

The National Health Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the population. An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Jonghwan health policy since the early 1950s. Healthcare in Jonghwa is mostly nationalized, and has recently experienced a significant rise in quality. Jonghwa is a major producer and exporter of pharmaceuticals.

As of the mid-2020s, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 79 years, and the infant mortality rate is 4 per 1,000. Both have improved significantly since the 1950s. Rates of stunted growth declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 4.5% in 2024. Jonghwan mental health services are adequate. Jonghwa's large population and dense cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such as SARS in 2003. The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuuhann.

Culture

Since ancient times, Jonghwan culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Jonghwan culture, in turn, has heavily influenced East Asia and Southeast Asia. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Hann dynasty. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in Jonghwa, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Jonghwan culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in Jonghwa today.

Literature

Jonghwan literature has its roots in the Jou dynasty. The classical texts of Jonghwa encompass a wide range of thoughts and subjects. Among the most significant early works are the Four Books and Five Classics. These texts were the cornerstone of the Confucian curriculum sponsored by the state throughout the dynastic periods. Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Jonghwan poetry developed over millennia. Jonghwan historiography began with the Shyyjih, part of the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Jonghwan fictions along with Jonghwan mythology and folklore. The Ming era saw a boom of Jonghwan classical fiction, as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels. Along with wuushya (martial arts) fictions, it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the Jonghwan sphere of influence.

Architecture

Jonghwan architecture has developed over millennia in Jonghwa, influencing architecture across East Asia, and to a lesser extent, South and Southeast Asia. Jonghwan architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, and fengshoei (e.g. directional hierarchies).

Jonghwan architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Jonghwan architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different geographic regions and different ethnic heritages.

Art

Jonghwan art is generally characterized by a high degree of continuity, underpinned by Taoist, Confucian, and Buddhist philosophies, which emphasize a metaphysical connection to nature. This aesthetic is exemplified by Shanshoei (mountain-water) ink wash painting and fine calligraphy, both regarded as elite art forms that utilize expressive brushwork. Simultaneously, Jonghwa maintains an unparalleled legacy in material crafts, most notably pottery and ceramics. Progressing from painted Neolithic earthenware to the tri-color (santsae) lead-glazed tomb figurines of the Tarng dynasty and the technically flawless porcelain, celadon, and blue-and-white wares of the Sonq, Ming, and Ching dynasties, Jonghwan ceramic production set global standards for technological innovation and refined design.

Music

Jonghwan music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Jonghwan music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Jonghwan musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bain (八音). Traditional Jonghwan opera is a form of musical theatre in Jonghwa originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beeipyng and Cantonese opera. Jonghwan pop (J-Pop) includes mandopop and cantopop. Jonghwan hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become popular.

Fashion

Hannfwu is the historical clothing of the Hann people in Jonghwa. The chyipaur or cheongsam is a popular Jonghwan female dress. The Hannfwu Movement has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hannfwu clothing. Jonghwa Fashion Week is one of the country's many national-level fashion festivals.

Cuisine

Jonghwan cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including Syhchuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fwujiann, Hwunan, Anhuei, and Jehjiang cuisines. Jonghwan cuisine is known for its breadth of cooking methods and ingredients. Jonghwa's staple food is rice in the northeast and south, and wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. Bean products such as tofu and soy milk remain a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about 60% of the country's total meat consumption. Pork-free Jonghwan Islamic cuisine is served at halal-certified restaurants in various regions while vegetarian Buddhist cuisine is commonly found at restaurants near shrines and temples.

Sports

Jonghwa has one of the oldest sporting cultures. There is evidence that archery (shehjiann) was practiced during the Western Jou dynasty. Swordplay (jiannshuh) and tsuhjiu, a sport loosely related to association football date back to Jonghwa's early dynasties as well. Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Jonghwan culture, with morning exercises such as chihgong and tai chi widely practiced.

Basketball is the most popular spectator sport in Jonghwa, represented by the Jonghwan Basketball Association. Jonghwa's professional football league, known as the Jonghwan Super League, is the largest football market in East Asia. Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming, and snooker. Jonghwa is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012. Jonghwa has the world's largest esports market. Jonghwa has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932. Jonghwa hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics, the 2022 Winter Olympics. and the Asian Games of 1990, 2010, and 2023.

Media

The mass media of Jonghwa primarily consists of television, newspapers, radio, and magazines. The largest media organizations are the People's Daily, Shinhwa News Agency, and the Jonghwa Media Group consisting of Jonghwa Central Television, Jonghwa Global Television Network, Jonghwa National Radio and Jonghwa Radio International.

Cinema was first introduced to Jonghwa in 1896 and the first Jonghwan film, Dingjun Mountain, was released in 1905. Jonghwa has had the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2006; Jonghwa became the largest cinema market in 2010, and domestic movies dominate the market. In 2025, the video game market of Jonghwa was the world's largest by revenue.

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